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Abstract: »Captives in Roman warfare are often overlooked yet played a key role in Roman society. Scholarship has previously considered institutions which involved captive-taking, including slavery and Imperialism, but there has not yet been a comprehensive study of the stages involved in acquiring captives.
Previous scholarship has been confined by linguistic parameters, such as studies which have focussed on those labelled as ‘hostages’ or enslaved people exclusively. I have taken an holistic approach and use ‘captive’ as an umbrella term which refers to individuals captured by the Romans during warfare, including those who were, or have been in recent scholarship, described as: hostages, enslaved people, or prisoners of war. This has enabled me to compare the treatment of individuals or groups of people who were not explicitly labelled using language associated with captive or hostage-taking, but who held a similar status in Roman society.
The different stages of captive-taking have been defined by the treatment captive people experienced at the hands of the Romans. Captive-taking in the Roman world was used for or involved: military intelligence, massacre, sexual violence, enslavement, hostage-taking, and the appearance of captives in triumphs. I address each of these factors in turn, arguing that the Romans recognised a process of captive-taking which involved treatment designed to humiliate an enemy people, thereby rendering them more compliant with Roman demands.
This thesis uses Greco-Roman literature, art, and iconography to outline and explore the process of captive-taking in Roman warfare. Greco-Roman evidence relating to captive-taking is written from a Roman perspective, or a viewpoint heavily influenced by Roman culture. Therefore, it has been necessary in this thesis to utilise examples which were written by the elite and promotional in nature to consider the historical realities and expectations implicit within such sources and to develop a fuller picture of captive-taking practices. The Roman elite were acutely aware of representation, and the treatment of captives was also influenced by such consideration. I have also made use of comparative examples of captive-taking and the processes briefly outlined above from modern history and current affairs to further discussion where Roman sources on the subject are limited.« (Source: Thesis)

Contents:

	Acknowledgements
	Abstract
	Introduction (p. 1)
		i. Captive-taking in the Roman World (p. 1)
		ii. Modern Captives (p. 2)
		iii. Defining Ancient Captives (p. 4)
		iv. Language and Methodology (p. 6)
		v. Plautus’ Captivi (p. 8)
		vi. Sources (p. 11)
		vii. Time Period (p. 12)
		viii. Literature Review (p. 14)
			a. Warfare and Imperialism (p. 15)
			b. Slavery (p. 17)
			c. Hostages (p. 19)
			d. Triumphs (p. 21)
			e. Classical Art and Numismatics (p. 23)
		ix. Structure and approach (p. 24)
	Chapter One - The Rules of War and Captives’ Military Value (p. 26)
		1.1. The Rules of War (p. 26)
		1.2. Exempla and the Battle of Cannae (p. 27)
		1.3. Justifying Rule-breaking (p. 29)
		1.4. Rule-breaking as an Indicator of Character (p. 31)
		1.5. Military Intelligence (p. 33)
		1.6. Deceitful Captives (p. 35)
		1.7. The ‘Inferior’ Enemy (p. 36)
		1.8. Captives as Combatants (p. 39)
		1.9. Chapter Conclusion (p. 40)
	Chapter Two – Massacre (p. 42)
		2.1. Introduction (p. 42)
		2.2. Open and Siege Warfare (p. 42)
		2.3. Military Control (p. 46)
		2.4. Responsibility for Massacre (p. 48)
		2.5. Roman Criticism of Massacre (p. 50)
		2.6. Massacre and Revenge (p. 51)
		2.7. Treachery (p. 54)
		2.8. Massacre and Theatrics (p. 55)
		2.9. Chapter Conclusion (p. 56)
	Chapter Three – Sexual Violence (p. 57)
		3.1 Introduction (p. 57)
		3.2 Survivors and Victims of Sexual Violence (p. 60)
		3.3. Motivations for Sexual Violence in Warfare (p. 62)
		3.4. Virgil’s Aeneid (p. 69)
		3.5. Scipio and New Carthage (p. 74)
		3.6. Chiomara (p. 79)
		3.7. Cremona (p. 81)
		3.8. Caesar’s Gallic Wars (p. 83)
		3.9. Tacitus’ Calgacus (p. 89)
		3.10. Boudica’s Revolt (p. 91)
		3.11. Sexual Violence in Art and Iconography (p. 96)
		3.12. Conclusion (p. 101)
	Chapter Four – Enslavement (p. 102)
		4.1. Introduction (p. 102)
		4.2. The Language of Slavery (p. 104)
		4.3. Inevitable Enslavement? (p. 106)
		4.4. The Slave Trade: Historical Realities? (p. 108)
		4.5. Soldiers’ Gains: The Siege of Cremona (p. 111)
		4.6. The Value of Enslaved People (p. 113)
		4.7. The Trade in Enslaved People (p. 116)
		4.8. Captives in the Roman Home (p. 119)
		4.9. Enslavement and Iconography (p. 123)
		4.10. The Roman Trophy (p. 125)
		4.11. The Captive-Tropaeum Motif (p. 127)
		4.12. Captive Iconography in the Provinces (p. 130)
		4.13. Chapter Conclusion (p. 134)
	Chapter Five – ‘Hostages’ in War and ‘Peace’ (p. 135)
		5.1. Introduction (p. 135)
		5.2. Defining Hostages (p. 135)
		5.3. Hostages in Warfare: The Exemplum of Scipio Africanus at New Carthage (p. 138)
		5.4. Caesar’s Wartime Hostage-taking (p. 140)
		5.5. The Practicalities of Wartime Hostage-taking (p. 142)
		5.6. Justification for Military Action (p. 146)
		5.7. Hostages in Rome (p. 148)
		5.8. Tigranes the Younger of Armenia and Dumnorix of the Aedui (p. 149)
		5.9. Hostages as Symbols of Power: Tigranes the Younger (p. 151)
		5.10. Hostages as Symbols in Rome (p. 154)
		5.11. Hostages in Iconography: The Ara Pacis (p. 156)
		5.12. The Treatment of Hostages in Rome (p. 158)
		5.13. Client Kings (p. 160)
		5.14. Augustus’ Parthian ‘Hostages’ (p. 162)
		5.15. Unsuccessful Hostage-taking (p. 164)
		5.16. Successful Hostages? Juba II of Numidia (p. 165)
		5.17. Chapter Conclusion (p. 169)
	Chapter Six – Captives in the Roman Triumph (p. 171)
		6.1. Introduction (p. 171)
		6.2. Captives of Rome’s Imagination (p. 172)
		6.3. Triumphs and Political Competition (p. 174)
		6.4. The Triumph of Titus, 71 CE (p. 176)
		6.5. Advertising the Triumph (p. 177)
		6.6. Preparing for the Triumph (p. 178)
		6.7. The Triumph’s Route and Order (p. 178)
		6.8. Principal Captives (p. 181)
		6.9. Selecting Principal Captives (p. 182)
		6.10. Signs and Placards (p. 184)
		6.11. Captives on Display: Paintings, Platforms, and Effigies (p. 186)
		6.12. Captives in Chains (p. 188)
		6.13. Women in Triumphs (p. 190)
		6.14. Arsinoë IV and Cleopatra the Great of Egypt (p. 190)
		6.15. Mother and Child Captives: Thusnelda and Thumelicus (p. 196)
		6.16. Child Captives: Juba II and the Ptolemy Twins (p. 199)
		6.17. Execution (p. 201)
		6.18. The Execution of Simon bar Giora (p. 203)
		6.19. Reasons for Execution (p. 204)
		6.20. Methods of Execution (p. 206)
		6.21. Women and Execution (p. 215)
		6.22. Chapter Conclusion (p. 218)
	Conclusion (p. 219)
		Gender (p. 219)
		The process and representation of Captive-taking: From the Mid-Republic to the Early Principate (p. 220)
		Captive-taking and Elite Characterisation (p. 222)
		Characterisation of the Enemy: ‘Worthy’ and ‘Deceitful’ Captives (p. 225)
		Humiliation and Degradation (p. 226)
		Captives of Rome(p. 227)
	List of Figures (p. 229)
	Abbreviations (p. 251)
	Bibliography (p. 251)

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